[{"command":"openDialog","selector":"#drupal-modal","settings":null,"data":"\u003Cdiv id=\u0022republish_modal_form\u0022\u003E\u003Cform class=\u0022modal-form-example-modal-form ecl-form\u0022 data-drupal-selector=\u0022modal-form-example-modal-form\u0022 action=\u0022\/en\/article\/modal\/9652\u0022 method=\u0022post\u0022 id=\u0022modal-form-example-modal-form\u0022 accept-charset=\u0022UTF-8\u0022\u003E\u003Cp\u003EHorizon articles can be republished for free under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence.\u003C\/p\u003E\n      \u003Cp\u003EYou must give appropriate credit. We ask you to do this by:\u003Cbr \/\u003E\n      1) Using the original journalist\u0027s byline\u003Cbr \/\u003E\n      2) Linking back to our original story\u003Cbr \/\u003E\n      3) Using the following text in the footer: This article was originally published in \u003Ca href=\u0027#\u0027\u003EHorizon, the EU Research and Innovation magazine\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/p\u003E\n      \u003Cp\u003ESee our full republication guidelines \u003Ca href=\u0027\/horizon-magazine\/republish-our-stories\u0027\u003Ehere\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/p\u003E\n      \u003Cp\u003EHTML for this article, including the attribution and page view counter, is below:\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022js-form-item form-item js-form-type-textarea form-item-body-content js-form-item-body-content ecl-form-group ecl-form-group--text-area form-no-label ecl-u-mv-m\u0022\u003E\n        \n\u003Cdiv\u003E\n  \u003Ctextarea data-drupal-selector=\u0022edit-body-content\u0022 aria-describedby=\u0022edit-body-content--description\u0022 id=\u0022edit-body-content\u0022 name=\u0022body_content\u0022 rows=\u00225\u0022 cols=\u002260\u0022 class=\u0022form-textarea ecl-text-area\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2\u003EIn climate drama, the volcano is no villain\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cp\u003EOn 15 June 1991, the Mount Pinatubo volcano in the Philippines erupted with a cataclysmic explosion so violent, the volcano collapsed in on itself. Its gas and ash cloud reached about 40km into the air, and in the weeks that followed, the cloud entered the stratosphere and spread around the globe. During the next year, the average global temperature dropped by about 0.5\u00b0C.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EA volcano is an opening in the Earth\u0027s crust that allows hot, molten rock to escape to the surface. It also allows gas and ash to escape from the high-temperature interior of the earth.\u0026nbsp;\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EVolcanic eruptions play an important role in cooling the planet. The\u0026nbsp;sulphur gases from the volcanic plumes combine with other gases in the atmosphere, and these aerosols scatter solar radiation, reflecting it into space. But scientists are concerned that climate change could make eruptions less effective at reducing global temperatures. This feedback loop, in which climate change could hinder or amplify the ability of volcanic eruptions to combat rising temperatures, is currently not included in future climate scenarios.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe \u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/cordis.europa.eu\/project\/id\/835939\u0022\u003EVOLCPRO\u003C\/a\u003E project set out to investigate two different types of eruptions to see if global heating would compromise their cooling effect.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThomas Aubry, a researcher at the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom and Marie Sk\u0142odowska-Curie Actions (MSCA) fellow on VOLCPRO, wondered whether an eruption like Mount Pinatubo would have had the same cooling effect were it to happen a hundred years later in a world where global temperature rise \u2013 through the effects of climate change \u2013 continues unchecked.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EHigh intensity eruption\u003C\/strong\u003E\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe first type of eruption, similar to Mount Pinatubo, is known as a high intensity eruption. This type emits plumes of ash and particles that reach 25km or higher into the atmosphere, and contains billions of tons of sulphur gases. Relatively rare, an eruption of this very powerful type arises every few decades \u2013\u2013 Mount Pinatubo was one of the largest eruptions the world had seen in a century.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe second type is smaller, but more frequent. \u2018We were wondering how climate change will affect these two different types of eruptions, the small ones versus the big ones,\u2019 said Aubry.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cblockquote class=\u0022text-center text-blue font-bold text-2xl w-full lg:w-1\/2 border-2 border-blue p-12 my-8 lg:m-12 lg:-ml-16 float-left\u0022\u003E\n  \u003Cspan class=\u0022text-5xl rotate-180\u0022\u003E\u201c\u003C\/span\u003E\n  \u003Cp class=\u0022font-serif italic\u0022\u003EMore global warming, more volcanic cooling.\r\n\u003C\/p\u003E\n  \u003Cfooter\u003E\n    \u003Ccite class=\u0022not-italic font-normal text-sm text-black\u0022\u003EThomas Aubry, VOLCPRO\u003C\/cite\u003E\n  \u003C\/footer\u003E\n\u003C\/blockquote\u003E\n\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe VOLCPRO team modelled historical eruptions showing their influence on climate, and then simulated what would happen if those same eruptions took place in the future, when the climate has changed and global temperatures are hotter.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003ETheir simulations relied on the \u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.metoffice.gov.uk\/research\/approach\/modelling-systems\/new-flagship-climate-models\u0022\u003EUK Met Office\u2019s advanced climate model\u003C\/a\u003E. \u2018Inside that (UK Met Office) model, we added another model that can simulate the rise of a volcanic plume and how high this volcanic column can rise depending on, for example, the wind condition during eruption day, or the temperature in the atmosphere on the day, and so on,\u2019 Aubry said.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EFor the large eruptions, they found that the cooling would be amplified by global warming, \u2018which is kind of good news,\u2019 said Aubry. \u2018More global warming, more volcanic cooling.\u2019\u0026nbsp;\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EIn a warmer atmosphere, the plumes of high intensity eruptions will rise even higher, allowing the tiny volcanic particles to travel further. This haze of aerosols will cover a wider area, reflecting more solar radiation and amplifying these volcanoes\u2019 temporary cooling effect.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe opposite was true of the smaller, more frequent volcanic eruptions. In those cases, the hotter temperatures thwarted the cooling effects from the eruptions.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EHowever, before they push to have their findings included in scientists\u2019 global climate change projections, Aubry wants to investigate other volcanoes and other models to reinforce their results.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EVOLCPRO focused on tropical volcanoes, as eruptions around the equator tend to affect climate globally because the volcanic particles spread to both hemispheres easily. By including volcanoes closer to the poles, the researchers will be able to determine how other eruptions respond to higher temperatures. They also want to include more climate models, not just the UK\u2019s, to make sure that their findings are robust.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EVolcanic ash\u003C\/strong\u003E\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EMeanwhile, Elena Maters, a former MSCA fellow now based at the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom, is working to figure out what happens to volcanic ash in the atmosphere and how it influences cloud formation and, ultimately, climate.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EVolcanic ash promotes ice formation in the atmosphere, which ultimately replaces water in clouds. Clouds are one of the biggest \u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/research-and-innovation\/en\/horizon-magazine\/clouds-climate-uncertainty\u0022\u003Equestion marks\u003C\/a\u003E in climate research, and the more we understand how they are formed and behave, the more precise our models.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u2018The common assumption is that liquid water will turn to ice below zero (degrees),\u2019 Maters explained. That is not always the case and small droplets can remain as liquid down to around minus 35\u00b0C. But particles in the atmosphere create \u2018catalytic surfaces that make it easier for water molecules to form an ice crystal.\u2019\u0026nbsp;\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EMineral dust, from sand originating in desert regions around the world such as the Sahara and Gobi deserts, is the dominant source of solid particles in the atmosphere. However, there are many other sources, including volcanic ash.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe \u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/cordis.europa.eu\/project\/id\/746695\u0022\u003EINoVA\u003C\/a\u003E project sought to determine the extent to which volcanic ash aids ice formation.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cblockquote class=\u0022text-center text-blue font-bold text-2xl w-full lg:w-1\/2 border-2 border-blue p-12 my-8 lg:m-12 lg:-ml-16 float-left\u0022\u003E\n  \u003Cspan class=\u0022text-5xl rotate-180\u0022\u003E\u201c\u003C\/span\u003E\n  \u003Cp class=\u0022font-serif italic\u0022\u003EYou can have big eruptions that can quickly (\u2026) release huge amounts of particles, and this has been neglected in a lot of modelling.\r\n\u003C\/p\u003E\n  \u003Cfooter\u003E\n    \u003Ccite class=\u0022not-italic font-normal text-sm text-black\u0022\u003EElena Maters, INoVA\u003C\/cite\u003E\n  \u003C\/footer\u003E\n\u003C\/blockquote\u003E\n\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u2018On a yearly average, there\u2019s about 10 times less volcanic ash (than mineral dust) in the atmosphere,\u2019 Maters said. \u2018But you can have big eruptions that can quickly, in a matter of hours to days, release huge amounts of particles, and this has been neglected in a lot of climate modelling and even in cases that look at the impacts of volcanoes.\u2019\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EIce formation\u003C\/strong\u003E\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EAs part of INoVA, Maters and colleagues investigated the efficacy of volcanic ash in promoting ice formation. They compared this to the ubiquitous mineral dust, testing to see which types were the most successful.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EVolcanic ash is mostly glass, with a sprinkling of minerals like feldspars and iron oxides. The composition of the ash depends on the make-up of the magma roiling underneath, and the speed at which it is explosively ejected from the volcano, among other things.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EPrevious studies compared only a handful of ash types, said Maters, whose research focuses on volcanic ash reactivity and chemistry. \u2018You can\u2019t measure two or three samples and then make a conclusion for all volcanic ash and volcanic eruptions worldwide. They vary hugely in the glass composition, the proportion of glass to minerals, the types of minerals, and so the experiments I did were trying to get to the bottom of the range of efficacy of volcanic ash from different types of eruptions,\u2019 she said.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EMaters took nine ash samples with a range of compositions and used them to create nine synthetic samples through melting and rapid cooling. She compared these 18 samples to identify which properties make volcanic ash more active in creating ice. In another study with a group at Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany, Maters and colleagues analysed another 15 volcanic samples to identify their ice-making properties.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EShe suggested that the most ice-active component in volcanic ash is alkali feldspar, a mineral composed of aluminium, silicon and oxygen commonly found in the Earth\u2019s crust. \u2018Now, having this understanding of which minerals in ash are good at nucleating (forming) ice,\u2019 said Maters, \u2018you might be able to predict when a volcano erupts whether that volcano, based on its magma composition, could produce ice-active ash.\u2019\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EWhile her work was previously very laboratory-based, the Covid pandemic has forced her into modelling, she joked. She is now investigating the 2010 Eyjafjallaj\u00f6kull volcanic eruptions in Iceland to see how that introduced ice-forming particles into the atmosphere, and how those particles compared to the abundance of mineral dust.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe study will examine how volcanic ash has a role in ice formation when we actually plug it into the atmosphere. It will compare it to other types of particle, such as mineral dust and asks the question, \u201cDoes it matter?\u201d\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EAs better climate models are developed, \u2018It\u2019s a proof of concept to demonstrate that explosive eruptions could be important to include,\u0027 said Maters.\u003C\/p\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cem\u003EThe research in this article was funded via the EU\u0027s Marie Sk\u0142odowska-Curie Actions (MSCA). 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